Live Encounters Magazine Special Edition April 2025.
The importance of Strategic Culture in my Research;
The Intersection of Philosophy and Strategy by Dr. Namrata Goswami. – Article Three
Strategic culture, as I define it, is a nation’s assumptions about its threats and opportunities. We utilize the term strategic because in an analysis of culture within a strategic context, what we are looking for is how that society anticipates and innovates to create ideational and physical attributes that build advantages for itself. This kind of culture is strategic because it takes into account the nation’s industrial base, its education system, its demographic, its system of government, its military, and its commercial sector to build a grand strategic vision of where that state wants to be, what it wants to accomplish, who it wants to partner with, and whose ideology and state system, it wants to deter. There are deep-seated philosophical overtones and undertones in a nation’s strategic culture. Strategic culture includes a nation’s multiple traditions, its history, its values, its political identity, and vision of the future. Within one nation, there could be multiple different strategic cultures that influence it deeply. In my research on space policy and the Great Power Competition, I discovered that nations like China, the U.S., Japan, and India valued particular traditions, histories, and visions of themselves and why space formed a vital part of who they thought and wanted their societies to be. India, for instance, prided itself in its scientific prowess from its ancient past, in the field of astronomy, visions of space warfare and specialized weapons systems, the multiple strategies its ancient kingdoms adopted to navigate threats and opportunities, lessons from its history and its failed attempts at thwarting several foreign invasions and occupations, the most famous of them being the Mughal and British empires, and the importance of science and technology. Space, as a result, formed a part of that ancient and current vision; with India now aiming to send humans to the Moon, and developing capacities for inter-planetary missions.
China has its deep-seated tradition of a strategic culture. The development of strategic thinking, on how it viewed and perceived threats and opportunities, was deeply ingrained in several of its ancient texts and histories, the most famous being Sun Tzu and Lao Tzu; one an advisor on military strategy; the other offering deeply philosophical considerations of how to be. Sun Tzu’s Art of War offered a comprehensive strategy on how to prepare for threats and opportunities. Sun Tzu believed five factors affect one’s deliberations on war and strategy. This included the moral law (philosophy); Heaven and Earth (the conditions), the Commander (leadership), and method and discipline. The moral law in Sun Tzu’s perspective is what causes people to follow their ruler to their death; heaven signifies night and day and the seasons; Earth signifies the geographic conditions, for instance, distances, landscape, and terrain; the commander stands for values like wisdom and benevolence, courage and a strict bearing, and method and discipline meant maintaining an army, the logistics, and control over military expenditure. Note how Sun Tzu prioritizes the qualities of the ruler and the commander (philosophy) with what it can encourage to achieve particular outcomes (strategy). There is a boldness in Sun Tzu’s belief in his wisdom. Notice this statement, “the general that hearkens to my counsel and acts upon it, will conquer: let such a one be retained in command! The general that hearkens not to my counsel nor acts upon it, will suffer defeat: -let such a one be dismissed”.
[i] Interestingly, Sun Tzu’s focus on the moral law, and if rulers possess that law, will generate immense loyalty from their subjects, is similar to how Herodotus explained Spartan bravery vis-à-vis the Persians in his history of the Greco-Persian wars. Herodotus indicated that the Athenians took inspiration from their democracy that generated equality and meritocracy; the Spartans from their immense adherence and obligation to the law. Herodotus argued that there were unique Greek cultural traits that enabled them to defeat a much larger Persian army.[ii] And we have all learned about the famous Melian Dialogue on how the Athenian generals decided to sack Melos for the larger good of Athens, in Thucydides’ Peloponnesian War. [iii]
Lao Tzu’s Tao Teh Ching offers wise counsel on how to navigate through life by practicing certain principles of what he calls, the way or the Tao. This Tao aims to be in accord with how the universe works itself, a balance, but also an ability to restrain and understand the true meaning of life. For instance, think of this counsel from the book. “if we stop looking for persons of moral superiority, to put in power, there will be no more jealousies among the people”, or “by not prizing things hard to get, you will cause the people to cease robbing and stealing” or “the universe is everlasting. The reason the universe is everlasting is that it does not live for self. Therefore, it can long endure”.[iv] There is a timelessness to this kind of thinking that affects strategic culture. In Indian strategic culture, there is that dimension of timelessness as well as there is the notion of fate and destiny; that even if you try hard as an individual to change fate, your destiny is pre-determined. Therefore, while strategic culture is a consequence of cause and effect, and the examination by the elites of society as to the threats and opportunities their nations could face, the cultural uniqueness of different societies, their philosophical traditions, and their exaltation of certain values has a deep impact on how they constitute themselves in terms of governance mechanisms.
The connection of cause and effect is an integral part of Hindu and Buddhist philosophy. In the Indian epic, Mahabharata, the intricate complexity of duty (dharma), niti (policy), values (just war), what is proportionality in war, military strategy, the making of alliances, the importance of intelligence, deception, tactical maneuvers in war, the ultimate weapon which is envisioned as the Brahma Astra, capable of ultimate destruction, a weapon of last resort, and that which cannot be easily deterred, are all discussed in great depth. To activate the Brahma Astra, a warrior had to be equipped with the knowledge to do so. A few warriors in the mythology could invoke the Brahma Astra, and they included Arjuna, Krishna, Karna, Ashwatthama. Once a Brahma Astra was invoked, it was only another Brahma Astra that could potentially deter it, but that would depend on the strategy utilized, not dissimilar from the modern understanding of nuclear strategy (either by denial or punishment).[v] Complete knowledge of the weapon could equip someone with the ability to stop it. That kind of mythology is fascinating because it invokes concepts of total war, but also the importance of limitations and just war especially around issues of non-combatant immunity and discrimination. The idea of Dharma Yuddha (Just War), especially the importance of a just cause and ethical principles in how a war is fought, is highlighted. That did not mean, however, that the laws of war were paramount, and a king had to strive to follow them. [vi] The Mahabharat is filled with deception and strategic overreach by both sides in the battle. Interestingly, the famous Indian book, the Bhagavad Gita, was a treatise on the conversation between Krishna and Arjuna, right before the start of the battle of Kurukshetra, from the Mahabharata. Through this dialogue, Krishna convinces Arjuna that it was Arjuna’s duty (dharma) to fight in this righteous war, convincing Arjuna that not fighting this war will cause true harm, specifically by not fighting an unjust enemy (the Kauravas) when called upon to do so. Critically, it’s the end state of moral quality that the war seeks, and Krishna highlights that without offering much detail on how the war should be fought. Ultimately, what mattered was that the Pandavas should triumph.[vii] An interesting similarity exists between the dialogue of the Bhagavad Gita and the Melian Dialogue from the Peloponnesian War in which the two Athenian generals Kleomedes and Tisias negotiated with the representatives of Melos for its surrender to Athens. Both sides negotiated on issues of justice, with the envoys of Melos stating that Melos should be allowed to remain independent and neutral, as was the natural law of justice for smaller states. The two Athenian generals concluded that it was in the interest of Athens to ensure submission of Melos to Athens’s power, not only to improve its image but also to ensure that other smaller states do not rebel against Athens and/or desire to be neutral in the war between Athens and Sparta.[viii] In China, we have a rich discourse on issues of morality, a good life, righteousness, wisdom, loyalty, and meritocracy between philosophers like Confucius, Mencius, etc. I found this book titled The Intellectual Foundations of China by Frederick Mote a good primer on the philosophical and strategic foundations of Chinese thinking and what it means to live an examined life.[ix]
These critical dialogues that shape a society’s philosophical and strategic outlooks uniquely inform my research on how countries like the U.S., China, India, Russia, Luxembourg, and UAE decided what space goals they wanted to pursue. In deciding why space is important as an investment, unique strategic cultures, systems of governments, economic resources, and education level play a vital role. Strategic culture includes, for instance, in China, the idea of how the Moon is important to China’s sense of identity, culture, and military value; for India, it represents an ancient civilizational connection; for the U.S., space, as an unknown frontier, is connected to the idea of that entrepreneurial American spirit, that defies all odds and masters and/or anticipates the conditions of life, challenges, and opportunities, that a frontier like space would throw up. Investments in advanced technologies like space also have significant military benefits, especially for the ability of nations to use that technology to take advantage of opportunities and/or deter threats to its values, political system, commerce, and homeland through the intelligence that can be generated by space assets. However, in understanding and examining strategic culture, one has to develop a method of taking insights from a plethora of interdisciplinary studies but also from fieldwork. Understanding how elites in a particular society make its decisions requires assessments of the location of the nation they belong to, the history, the societal capacity for innovation, the educational system, as well as the political system that is in place. I find strategic culture, the intermix of philosophy and strategy, as vital to understanding the deeper intersections of how nations behave, why they have a certain identity, what their populations prize, and why they differ from each other. It is also important to realize that a society’s philosophical outlook, religious values, societal mores, and political culture influence what that society will prize, and what will it focus on in terms of its societal culture. To examine that deeply and understand how a particular society organizes itself adds to the elegance of any research on international relations.
Disclaimer: The views expressed in this article are those of the author and do not reflect the official guidance or position of the United States Government, the Department of Defense, the United States Air Force, or the United States Space Force.
[i] Sun Tzu, The Art of War, translated by Lionel Giles, https://classics.mit.edu/Tzu/artwar.html
[ii] Herodotus, The Histories, translated by G.C. G. C. Macaulay, https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2707/2707-h/2707-h.htm
[iii] Thucydides, The History of the Peloponnesian Wars, translated by Richard Crawley, https://www.gutenberg.org/files/7142/7142-h/7142-h.htm
[iv] Lao Tzu’s Tao Teh Ching, A Parallel Translation Collection, Compiled by B. Boisen, https://www.bu.edu/religion/files/pdf/Tao_Teh_Ching_Translations.pdf
[v] Michael J. Mazzar, “Understanding Deterrence”, n.d., https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/perspectives/PE200/PE295/RAND_PE295.pdf
[vi] Mathew Kosuta, “Ethics of War and Rituals: The Bhagavad-Gita and Mahabharata as Test Cases”, Journal of Military Ethics, 19/3, 2020, pp. 186-200, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15027570.2020.1824578
[vii] The Bhagavad Gita, https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2388/2388-h/2388-h.htm
[viii] Melian Dialogue, https://www.nku.edu/~weirk/ir/melian.html
[ix] Frederick W. Mote, The Intellectual Foundations of China (New York: McGraw Hills Humanities, 1988).
© Dr. Namrata Goswami
Dr. Namrata Goswami is an author and educator specializing in space policy, international relations, and ethnic identity. Currently, Dr. Goswami teaches at the Schriever and West Space Scholar Programs, the School of Advanced International Studies, Johns Hopkins University, Thunderbird School of Global Management, Arizona State University, and at the Joint Special Forces University. She is a guest lecturer at Emory University for seminars on Technology, Society & Governance, and India today. She worked as a Research Fellow at MP-Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, New Delhi; a Visiting Fellow at Peace Research Institute, Oslo, Norway; La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia; University of Heidelberg, Germany; Jennings-Randolph Senior Fellow, United States Institute of Peace; and was a Fulbright Senior Fellowship Awardee. She was awarded the Minerva grant by the Office of the U.S. Secretary of Defense to study great power competition in outer space.
In April 2019, Dr. Goswami testified before the U.S-China Economic and Security Review Commission on China’s space program. Her co-authored book, Scramble for the Skies: The Great Power Competition to Control the Resources of Outer Space was published in 2020 by Lexington Press; Rowman, and Littlefield. Her book on The Naga Ethnic Movement for a Separate Homeland was published in 2020 by Oxford University Press. She has published widely including in The Diplomat, the Economic Times, The Washington Post, Ad Astra, Asia Policy, Live Encounters Magazine, Cairo Review. She was invited in November 2019 to share about her life and her work at a Tedx event held at the Rosa Parks Museum, in Montgomery, Alabama. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5WPNdnahLaY
I enjoyed reading your insightful article. All strategies take time to implement. In the modern world time is in short supply and as a result the vagaries of powerful leaders dictate the actions of individual States. Carefully considered strategy is no longer the defining model that moulded the old Empires in most instances to great benevolent effect. Disruption is unfortunately the primary strategy being pursued by the Great Powers of today and it is difficult for example to make a convincing argument that any of the current wars are just wars. The culture, heritage and history of the individual states and alliances count for little in the pursuit of conquest. It is difficult to have any faith that the exploration and control of Space at this juncture can be conducted in a constructive and peaceful manner with nation’s sharing in the potential benefits. I will follow your progress with interest.